Mahmud II: The Reformer Who Transformed the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, once a powerful and expansive entity, faced significant challenges in the early 19th century. This paper examines the transformative reign of Sultan Mahmud II from 1808 to 1839, focusing on his reform initiatives that aimed to modernize the empire and address its internal and external pressures. The purpose of this report is to analyze Mahmud II’s reforms, their implications for the Ottoman state, and their impact on the emp